CULTURE Historically, Korea was strongly influenced by Chinese culture and acted as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Koreans adapted many Chinese art forms with innovation and skill, creating distinctively Korean forms. For many centuries, metalwork, sculpture, painting, and ceramics flourished throughout the Korea Peninsula. Buddhism provided one of the most significant sources for artistic expression. Confucianism, also prominent, emphasized the importance of literature and calligraphy, as well as portrait and landscape painting.Koreans began to incorporate Western forms after Korea opened itself to the Western world in the late 1800s. During the period of Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945), indigenous traditions were strongly discouraged. Since then, however, Koreans have made a concerted effort to keep their cultural traditions alive. Koreans possess a deep appreciation for their cultural heritage. The government encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs as well as sponsorship of a national competitive exhibition each year.Korean cultural development is generally divided into periods coinciding with political development: the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc-ad 668), the Unified Silla period (668-935), the Koryŏ (Goryeo) period (918-1392), the Chosŏn (Joseon) period (1392-1910), and the modern period (1910-present). For an overview of these political periods, see Korea. Literature Korean literature can be classified chronologically into classical and modern periods. Korean classical literature combined indigenous folk traditions with the religious and philosophical principles of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. A male-dominated educated elite developed the classical body of literature from earliest times to the end of the Chosŏn dynasty in 1910. They wrote in the Chinese script. The Korean script, Hangeul, was introduced in 1446 but did not gain widespread acceptance as a literary language until the 20th century. The accessibility of Hangeul to all classes expanded the social base of Korean literature during the modern period. Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla The earliest surviving examples of literature appearing in Korean sources are the hyangga (native songs), which arose out of an ancient oral literary tradition and have both religious and folk overtones. Only 25 hyangga, some originally composed as early as the 6th century, are known to survive; 14 are preserved in an early historical text, Samguk-yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, 1285). Buddhism became the dominant system of thought during the Unified Silla period and exercised great influence over literature and art. At the same time, the rise of Confucianism stimulated the use of Chinese as a literary language and promoted study of the Chinese classics. Hanshi—poetry composed in classical Chinese and following Chinese principles of poetry, but written by Koreans—became widespread among the literary elite of the Unified Silla. Koryŏ and Chosŏn Buddhism remained a major influence in the literary development of the Koryŏ period. In 1236 King Kojong of the Koryŏ dynasty ordered Buddhist monks to record the entire Mahayana Buddhist canon (a collection of sutras, treatises, and commentaries known as the Tripitaka) to provide divine protection against Mongol invasions from the north (see Mongol Empire). Utilizing traditional block-printing methods, monks carved the text in the Chinese script in relief on more than 81,000 wood blocks, totaling 6,791 volumes. Today the original collection, considered to be the most complete rendering of the Mahayana Tripitaka in the world, is preserved at the Haeinsa Buddhist temple in southern South Korea, and the wood blocks continue to be used for printing the sacred texts. Literature assumed increasing importance during the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods, when educated civil servants called yangban replaced the hereditary ruling elite. In the tradition of Confucianism, the yangban were selected by a national examination that required mastery of literature, among other subjects. Their works constitute the majority of recorded Korean literature from the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods.The sijo, a lyrical poem with simple yet sophisticated three-stanza construction, emerged in the early 13th century, during the Koryŏ period, and subsequently flourished in the Chosŏn period. Early sijo expressed Confucian ideals using themes from nature, while later examples incorporated elements of satire and humor. Renowned sijo poets include Hwang Chin-i, an educated courtesan of the 16th century who is considered the foremost female Korean poet, and Yun Sŏn-do, a master of the form who lived from 1587 to 1671. The writing of sijo has endured into the 21st century and, much like Japanese haiku, has gained international popularity. Modern Period In the modern period, dating from the early 20th century, Korean writers adapted many different Western literary influences—notably realism, existentialism, and surrealism—in their efforts to express a series of difficult national experiences: Japanese colonial rule, the partition of Korea and ensuing Korean War, and a period of authoritarian rule. One of the most important achievements of modern Korean literature is the 16-volume epic novel T’oji (The Land), written by Park Kyŏng-ni over a period of 25 years (1969 to 1994). The work presents a vivid panorama of Korea from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. Art Contemporary Korean artists employ both traditional and Western forms in their works. Traditional handicrafts such as lacquerwork (often inlaid with mother-of-pearl), embroidery, and ceramics are produced for artistic and commercial purposes. Modern Korean art draws on a long history of cultural development and artistic achievement. Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
Koryŏ Artisans of the Unified Silla period attained the technology for highly refined, glazed stoneware. This development laid the foundation for the ceramics of the following Koryŏ period, when artisans achieved an unsurpassed level of skill in the green-glaze stoneware called celadon. Chosŏn
Music and Dance Traditional Forms South Korea has a rich oral tradition consisting of lyric folk songs, shaman chants, myths, legends, and folktales. Korean folk songs are diverse and numerous. They include ceremonial and work songs as well as popular songs about everyday life. “Arirang,” one of South Korea’s best-known folk songs, has numerous variations. Western Forms Western schools of music and dance are a more recent tradition in South Korea. The National Dance Company, founded in 1962, embraced modern dance and classical ballet genres. In 1973 the National Ballet Company was formed out of the National Dance Company, which then focused solely on modern dance. A private ballet company, Universal Ballet, was established in 1984. European modern ballet and American ballet styles, such as the neoclassicism of George Balanchine, became influential in the late 1980s. Modern dance has followed Western styles, including the highly expressive style of Martha Graham, introduced in South Korea in the 1960s, and a playful and satirical French style introduced in the 1980s. The Changmu Dance Company has pioneered experimental dance forms. Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. |
Korean art was produced primarily for religious purposes during the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc to ad 668). Gilt bronze statues depicting the Buddha and other deities demonstrated Korean skill in metallurgy. Royal burial tombs contained ornately crafted gold crowns, jewelry, and other ornaments with crescent-shaped jade pendants. The design of these pieces suggests that ancient shamanistic influences remained strong in Korean culture after the introduction of Buddhism in the 4th century.Koreans produced a rich variety of metal, stone, and ceramic works during the Unified Silla period, which ended in 935. A bronze bell made in 771 for King Sŏngdŏk of the Silla dynasty ranks as one of Asia’s largest cast-bronze bells. Temple building proliferated, most notably in the area of the Silla capital, Gyeongju. The Sŏkkuram cave temple, built high on a mountain ridge near Gyeongju in the 8th century, contains a remarkable example of a seated Buddha carved from granite. 
The art of the Chŏson period is noted for the development of landscape painting, exemplified in the works of Chŏng Sŏn, notably The Diamond Mountains. Paintings also documented important historical events, such as battles and foreign diplomatic visits. Calligraphy in Chinese characters, practiced since the Three Kingdoms period, gained importance. Calligraphy and painting flourished among the educated elite until the early 16th century. During the Chosŏn period, the Neo-Confucian state ideology discouraged the practice of Buddhism, which had long been a source of artistic inspiration. Many art forms, including ceramics, became more utilitarian, with few embellishments. In the early 20th century, Western influences infused Korean art with new concepts and methods.
Korean architecture incorporates Eastern philosophical principles that emphasize harmony with nature and the universe. It is believed that architecture based in these principles can foster social and political harmony as well. Temple architecture followed forms introduced from China. One of South Korea’s renowned Buddhist temples, Pulguksa, was built in the 8th century under the royal patronage of the Silla kingdom, which formally adopted Buddhism in the 6th century. The three surviving royal palaces in South Korea date from the Chosŏn period and are located in Seoul, the capital of the Chosŏn dynasty. Changdeok Palace, originally constructed in 1405, is the best-preserved palace and a World Heritage Site. Korean palaces largely followed Chinese models. They were built of wood, with stone foundations and tile-covered rooftops that extended beyond the main structure to form broad eaves. The undersides of the eaves were colorfully painted in intricate designs.
During the period of Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, many historic sites and artifacts were destroyed or confiscated. Western influences became more predominant. Since the Korean War (1950-1953), which also damaged historic sites, many monuments have been reconstructed, and priority is given to their continued preservation.
Lyrical or narrative, folk songs are accompanied by lively and emotive music played by percussion instruments such as drums, cymbals, and gongs, and the oboe (a double-reed wind instrument). One type of traditional song, the p’ansori, is a lengthy narrative that runs through several episodes and can continue for several hours. Accompanied by the beat of an hourglass drum, p’ansori is both spoken and sung. Ritual shaman music accompanies chants that are intended to induce a trance state in the shaman (mudang), a religious figure who is thought to commune with spirits. The mudang ritual performances rely heavily on dance and music, as well as colorful costumes and other props. Formal types of music and dance were first performed for the royal court of the Silla kingdom, and succeeding dynasties continued this tradition. Today various troupes perform court music and dance. Types of songs include the kagok, a long lyrical song, the kasa, a slow narrative song, and the sijo, a musical rendition of Korean sijo poems.Sandae-guk (mountain performance) is an improvised masked drama that features complex dances drawn from shamanism and songs based on folk music. Originally developed for the royal court, the form lost favor with the Chosŏn rulers in 1634. Thereafter it gained great popularity in rural areas, employing satire and bawdy humor to criticize the ruling class. See also Asian Theater.
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